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The 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded with one half to Roger Penrose "for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity" and the other half jointly to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez "for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy".

Astrophysics and cosmology

The first direct visual evidence of a black hole and its shadow In the first second after the Big Bang, the Universe was made of a hot, ionized, dense plasma consisting of electrons and protons in about equal numbers, with a smaller number of neutrons. This plasma was effectively opaque to electromagnetic radiation due to Thomson scattering by the free electrons. The Universe expanded and cooled, and at roughly 47,000 years, it was cool enough for neutral atoms to form ("recombination"), and the photons scattered by the now neutral atoms ("decoupling") could travel freely: the Universe became transparent. The photons that existed at that time have been propagating ever since, though growing fainter and less energetic, since the expansion of space causes their wavelength to increase and energy to decrease. These photons fill the Universe today and are visible as a weak background of microwaves that does not appear to be associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. This is the "cosmic microwave background radiation".

Cosmic background radiation was first detected in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, and was immediately recognized as the relic radiation of the Big Bang. This discovery provided what might be considered the "smoking gun" evidence for the Big Bang. Since then, the cosmic background radiation has been observed by many sensitive instruments, including COBE, WMAP and Planck, producing increasingly detailed measurements of its spectrum and small variations in intensity, providing further confirmation and refining the details of the Big Bang model.

In 2019, the Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration delivered the first image of the shadow of the event horizon of a black hole located at the center of the galaxy Messier 87, identifying the depicted object as the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A*.

In 2021, a program called the Dark Energy Survey, which mapped some 300 million galaxies, announced the discovery of a new class of 'ultrafaint' galaxies, and reported evidence for spatial structure in the distribution of dark matter.

High-energy physics/particle physics

CMS detector for LHC

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator complex, intended to collide opposing beams of protons with very high kinetic energy. Its main purpose is to explore the validity and limitations of the Standard Model, the current theoretical picture for particle physics. This model is known to break down at a certain high energy level.

The LHC was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) near Geneva, Switzerland. The collider is contained in a circular tunnel with a circumference of 27kilometers (17mi) at a depth ranging from 50 to 175meters (165 to 574ft) underground.

On 10 September 2008, the proton beams were successfully circulated in the main ring of the LHC for the first time, but 9 days later operations were halted due to a serious fault. On 20 November 2009 they were successfully circulated again, with the first proton–proton collisions being recorded 3 days later at the injection energy of 450GeV per beam (900GeV total). After the 2009 winter shutdown, the LHC restarted in March 2010, and soon surpassed the next threshold of 1 TeV per beam, reaching 3.5 TeV per beam (7 TeV total, the current world record) on 30 March 2010. On 4 July 2012, CERN announced the discovery of the boson, an elementary particle consistent with the Higgs boson, which is a key part of the explanation of how other elementary particles get their mass.

On 8 October 2013, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to François Englert and Peter Higgs for the theoretical prediction of the Higgs boson. Commenting on the award, CERN director general Rolf Heuer said, "The discovery last year of a Higgs boson has its roots in the theoretical breakthrough in the 1960s that led to the detailed understanding of how sub-atomic particles get mass, a mechanism confirmed by the discovery made at CERN last year."

In 2022, the discovery of a new class of tetraquark, the first observation of four heavy quarks of the same type in a single hadron, was announced. The particle, called Tcc+, is made of two charm quarks and two charm antiquarks.

Astronomy

Five moons of Pluto imaged by New Horizons (annotated)
In 2006, astronomer Mike Brown and his team discovered Eris, an object 27% more massive than Pluto, whose discovery prompted the International Astronomical Union to reconsider the definition of a planet, leading to the demotion of Pluto to the status of "dwarf planet".

On 24 April 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope was launched aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery and deployed into a low Earth orbit the following day. It was built by NASA, with contributions from the European Space Agency, and is operated by the Space Telescope Science Institute. It is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble. Hubble's highly sensitive instruments and favourable position above the Earth's atmosphere allow it to take extremely high-resolution images with almost no background light. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as accurately determining the rate of expansion of the universe, and the discovery in 2004 of the first ever predicted extrasolar planet atmosphere.

In 2006, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter sent back high-resolution pictures of gullies that suggest there may be current sources of liquid water on Mars.

In 2015, the Philae probe from the Rosetta spacecraft landed successfully on the surface of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, making it the first spacecraft to land on a comet nucleus.

In 2015, astronomers discovered the exoplanet Kepler-452b, the first near-Earth-size planet in the habitable zone of a G2-type star. It has been referred to as Earth's "closest cousin" or "Earth 2".

In 2015, NASA's New Horizons probe became the first spacecraft to explore Pluto up close, sending back detailed pictures of the dwarf planet and its largest moon, Charon.

In 2016, the LIGO experiment made the first direct observation of gravitational waves, supporting a key prediction of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.

Medicine

The COVID-19 pandemic was caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The COVID-19 vaccines were developed in record time. The first COVID-19 vaccines were administered in December 2020, less than a year after the discovery of the virus. As of September 2021, over 5.76 billion vaccine doses had been administered worldwide.

Food and drink

Quinoa has gained popularity due to its high protein content and nutritional value.
In the 21st century, quinoa has become increasingly popular in the United States, Europe, China and Australia due to its high nutritional value, with its consumption increasing every year. A 2017 study in mice found that quinoa has potential prebiotic benefits. It has potential uses in food processing and cosmetics.

The Impossible Burger, a plant-based burger, made headlines in 2017 with its realistic imitation of beef, including the ability to "bleed" like a real beef burger due to the use of leghemoglobin extracted from soy roots.

The world's first lab-grown burger patty, made from cultured meat, was cooked and eaten in London in 2013. The Dutch team behind the burger, led by Mark Post, a vascular physiologist at Maastricht University, grew 20,000 muscle fibres over the course of three months at a cost of more than £200,000. The burger was prepared by chef Richard McGeown and tasted by food critics Hanni Rützler and Josh Schonwald.

See also

* List of decades
* List of years
* 21st century in fiction

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Further reading

* Federico Mayor Zaragoza (2005). The World Ahead: Our Future in the Making. Zed Books. .
* The State of the Future: A Global Forecast (2011). The Millennium Project.
* George Friedman (2009). The Next 100 Years: A Forecast for the 21st Century. New York: Doubleday. .

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